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␈↓ ↓H␈↓α␈↓ β≤STATEMENT ON THE STATE OF THE ART IN ROBOTICS

␈↓ ↓H␈↓α␈↓ ¬Jby John McCarthy

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_This␈α∂is␈α∂a␈α⊂statement␈α∂on␈α∂the␈α∂state␈α⊂of␈α∂the␈α∂art␈α∂of␈α⊂robotics␈α∂in␈α∂so␈α∂far␈α⊂as␈α∂it␈α∂is␈α∂relevant␈α⊂to␈α∂the
␈↓ ↓H␈↓problem␈αof␈αdesigning␈αand␈αmanufacturing␈αa␈α
"domestic␈αandroid"␈αof␈αthe␈αsort␈αQuasar␈α
Industries␈αhas
␈↓ ↓H␈↓been promising to sell for $4000 in a few years.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_By␈α∂way␈α∂of␈α∂self-introduction,␈α∞I␈α∂am␈α∂Professor␈α∂of␈α∞Computer␈α∂Science␈α∂at␈α∂Stanford␈α∞University
␈↓ ↓H␈↓and␈α∩Director␈α∪of␈α∩the␈α∩Stanford␈α∪Artificial␈α∩Intelligence␈α∩Laboratory.␈α∪ I␈α∩have␈α∩been␈α∪involved␈α∩with
␈↓ ↓H␈↓robotics␈αsince␈α
about␈α1964␈α
and␈αwith␈α
artificial␈αintelligence␈αsince␈α
1952.␈α I␈α
received␈αthe␈α
A.M.␈αTuring
␈↓ ↓H␈↓award␈αof␈α
the␈αAssociation␈αfor␈α
Computing␈αMachinery␈αfor␈α
1971␈αfor␈αmy␈α
work␈αin␈αartificial␈α
intelligence
␈↓ ↓H␈↓and␈αother␈αareas␈αof␈αcomputer␈αscience.␈α Besides␈αtechnical␈αpublications,␈αI␈αhave␈αwritten␈αthe␈αarticle␈αon
␈↓ ↓H␈↓Robots␈α⊃for␈α⊃the␈α∩Britannica␈α⊃Yearbook␈α⊃of␈α∩Science␈α⊃and␈α⊃Technology␈α∩and␈α⊃the␈α⊃article␈α∩on␈α⊃artificial
␈↓ ↓H␈↓intelligence for Collier's Encyclopedia.  (To be included in the next revision).

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_Robotics␈αis␈αthe␈αart␈αof␈αmaking␈αmachines␈αthat␈αcan␈αcarry␈αout␈αmotor␈αand␈αsensory␈αactivities␈αlike
␈↓ ↓H␈↓those␈α
of␈α
humans.␈α
 While␈α
robots␈αare␈α
old␈α
hat␈α
in␈α
science␈αfiction,␈α
the␈α
main␈α
serious␈α
work␈α
dates␈αfrom
␈↓ ↓H␈↓about␈α∂1960.␈α∂ A␈α∞fully␈α∂developed␈α∂robot␈α∂will␈α∞require␈α∂a␈α∂body␈α∂with␈α∞powered␈α∂arms␈α∂and␈α∂legs,␈α∞vision,
␈↓ ↓H␈↓hearing␈α∞and␈α∞touch␈α
sensors,␈α∞and␈α∞a␈α
controlling␈α∞computer␈α∞program␈α
capable␈α∞of␈α∞visual␈α∞and␈α
auditory
␈↓ ↓H␈↓pattern␈α⊂recognition␈α⊂and␈α⊂common␈α⊂sense␈α⊂intelligence.␈α⊂ No-one␈α⊂is␈α⊂even␈α⊂close␈α⊂to␈α⊂meeting␈α⊃all␈α⊂these
␈↓ ↓H␈↓goals, but some of them have been partially achieved in the laboratory and also in industry.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓There are several lines of development.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_1.␈αIndustrial␈αrobots.␈α These␈αmachines␈αare␈αusually␈αsingle␈αarms␈αmounted␈αon␈αa␈αpedestal.␈α They
␈↓ ↓H␈↓perform␈α∞repetitive␈α
industrial␈α∞tasks␈α
like␈α∞putting␈α
a␈α∞part␈α
in␈α∞a␈α
furnace␈α∞or␈α
press␈α∞or␈α
welding␈α∞parts␈α
of
␈↓ ↓H␈↓automobile␈αbodies.␈α They␈αare␈αmainly␈αused␈αfor␈αjobs␈αthat␈αare␈αdangerous␈αor␈αunpleasant␈αfor␈αhumans,
␈↓ ↓H␈↓because␈α
they␈αhave␈α
been␈α
too␈αexpensive␈α
and␈α
inflexible␈αfor␈α
tasks␈α
humans␈αdo␈α
well␈α
and␈αcomfortably.
␈↓ ↓H␈↓Nevertheless,␈α⊃buying␈α⊃and␈α∩programming␈α⊃an␈α⊃industrial␈α⊃robot␈α∩is␈α⊃often␈α⊃cheaper␈α⊃than␈α∩building␈α⊃a
␈↓ ↓H␈↓special␈αpurpose␈αmachine␈αfor␈αthe␈αjob.␈α The␈αsimplest␈αindustrial␈αrobots␈αcarry␈αout␈αfixed␈αsequences␈αof
␈↓ ↓H␈↓actions␈α∂stored␈α∂on␈α∂a␈α∂paper␈α⊂tape,␈α∂i.e.␈α∂the␈α∂action␈α∂doesn't␈α⊂depend␈α∂on␈α∂events␈α∂that␈α∂occur␈α⊂during␈α∂the
␈↓ ↓H␈↓action␈α
and␈αis␈α
always␈α
the␈αsame␈α
once␈αthe␈α
robot␈α
has␈αbeen␈α
"programmed".␈α More␈α
recent␈α
robots␈αhave
␈↓ ↓H␈↓somewhat␈α∩flexible␈α∩programs␈α∩that␈α∩can␈α∩take␈α∩into␈α∩account␈α∩information␈α∩from␈α∩sensors␈α∩giving␈α⊃the
␈↓ ↓H␈↓positions␈α
of␈α
objects.␈α
 For␈α
example,␈α
the␈α
robots␈α
that␈αweld␈α
car␈α
bodies␈α
need␈α
to␈α
sense␈α
the␈α
position␈αof␈α
the
␈↓ ↓H␈↓car␈α⊂as␈α⊂it␈α⊂moves␈α⊂down␈α⊂the␈α⊂assembly␈α⊃line,␈α⊂because␈α⊂its␈α⊂position␈α⊂is␈α⊂not␈α⊂sufficiently␈α⊃predictable␈α⊂in
␈↓ ↓H␈↓advance.␈α Some␈αvery␈αrecent␈αindustrial␈αrobots,␈αe.g.␈αat␈αGeneral␈αMotors␈αand␈αat␈αHitachi␈αin␈αJapan,␈αuse
␈↓ ↓H␈↓television␈αcameras␈αto␈αrecognize␈αthe␈αpositions␈αof␈αobjects␈αto␈αbe␈αmanipulated.␈α This␈αrequires␈αthat␈αthe
␈↓ ↓H␈↓robot be controlled by a computer that can find the objects in a television image.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_2.␈αAcademic␈αprojects.␈α The␈αStanford␈αArtificial␈αIntelligence␈αLaboratory␈αhas␈αbeen␈αinvolved␈α
in
␈↓ ↓H␈↓robotics␈α
since␈α
1965.␈α
 For␈α
several␈α
years,␈αthe␈α
National␈α
Science␈α
Foundation␈α
has␈α
supported␈α
a␈αproject
␈↓ ↓H␈↓aimed␈αat␈αusing␈αrobots␈αto␈αassemble␈αobjects␈αfrom␈αparts.␈α An␈αarm␈αdesigned␈αin␈αour␈αlaboratory␈αis␈αnow
␈↓ ↓H␈↓the␈αbasis␈αof␈αa␈αjoint␈αproject␈αby␈αUnimation␈αInc.␈α(the␈αbiggest␈αmanufacturer␈αof␈αindustrial␈αrobots)␈αand
␈↓ ↓H␈↓General␈α∂Motors.␈α∂ This␈α∞project␈α∂is␈α∂designing␈α∞an␈α∂arm␈α∂that␈α∞can␈α∂be␈α∂used␈α∞for␈α∂general␈α∂purpose␈α∞light
␈↓ ↓H␈↓assembly work.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_Perhaps␈α∞our␈α∞largest␈α
activity␈α∞has␈α∞been␈α
computer␈α∞vision␈α∞aimed␈α
at␈α∞finding␈α∞objects␈α∞in␈α
scenes.
␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ εH␈↓ 91


␈↓ ↓H␈↓We␈α∂have␈α∂programs␈α∂that␈α∞pick␈α∂up␈α∂objects␈α∂and␈α∂assemble␈α∞them,␈α∂programs␈α∂that␈α∂navigate␈α∂a␈α∞vehicle
␈↓ ↓H␈↓avoiding obstacles, and programs that analyze pictures returned from Mars.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_Projects␈αwith␈αsimilar␈αaccomplishments␈αexist␈αat␈αM.I.T.,␈αat␈αEdinburgh␈αUniversity␈αin␈αScotland,
␈↓ ↓H␈↓at␈α
at␈α
least␈α
one␈α
laboratory␈α
in␈α
the␈α
Soviet␈α
Union,␈α
and␈α
at␈α
several␈α
industrial␈α
and␈αuniversity␈α
laboratories
␈↓ ↓H␈↓in␈α∂Japan.␈α∂ The␈α∂Jet␈α⊂Propulsion␈α∂Laboratory␈α∂of␈α∂N.A.S.A.␈α⊂ in␈α∂Pasadena,␈α∂California␈α∂has␈α⊂a␈α∂project
␈↓ ↓H␈↓aimed␈α
at␈α
a␈α
Mars␈α
Rover.␈α
 This␈α
is␈α
would␈α
be␈α
landed␈α
on␈α
Mars␈α
and␈α
would␈α
be␈α
able␈α
to␈α
travel␈α
on␈αthe
␈↓ ↓H␈↓Martian␈α∂surface␈α∂on␈α∞command␈α∂from␈α∂the␈α∂Earth,␈α∞take␈α∂pictures,␈α∂and␈α∞pick␈α∂up␈α∂samples␈α∂and␈α∞analyze
␈↓ ↓H␈↓them.␈α
 Because␈αof␈α
the␈α
long␈αtransmission␈α
time␈αfor␈α
signals␈α
between␈αthe␈α
Earth␈αand␈α
Mars,␈α
the␈αrover
␈↓ ↓H␈↓must␈αavoid␈αobstacles␈αunder␈αits␈αown␈αcontrol.␈α It␈αwould␈αtake␈αto␈αlong␈αif␈αeach␈αsmall␈αmovement␈αhad␈αto
␈↓ ↓H␈↓be based on a picture transmitted to Earth.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_The␈α∂Defense␈α∞Advanced␈α∂Research␈α∞Projects␈α∂Agency␈α∞supported␈α∂a␈α∞five␈α∂year␈α∞study␈α∂of␈α∞speech
␈↓ ↓H␈↓recognition␈α∞which␈α
achieved␈α∞considerable␈α
advances␈α∞in␈α
this␈α∞art.␈α
 Vocabularies␈α∞of␈α∞several␈α
hundred
␈↓ ↓H␈↓words can be handled in very restricted domains of discourse.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_The state of the arts required for a domestic robot may be summarized as follows:

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_1.␈α
Building␈α
a␈αrobot.␈α
 No-one␈α
has␈αbuilt␈α
a␈α
robot␈αwith␈α
two␈α
arms␈αthat␈α
can␈α
manipulate␈αobjects
␈↓ ↓H␈↓and␈α⊃can␈α⊃also␈α⊃move␈α⊃about␈α⊃on␈α⊃legs␈α⊃or␈α⊃wheels.␈α⊃ It␈α⊃is␈α⊃undoubtedly␈α⊃possible␈α⊃to␈α⊃build␈α⊃it,␈α⊃but␈α⊃the
␈↓ ↓H␈↓development␈α
costs␈α
might␈α
be␈α
several␈αmillion␈α
dollars␈α
if␈α
the␈α
weight␈αwere␈α
to␈α
be␈α
kept␈α
below␈α500␈α
pounds
␈↓ ↓H␈↓and␈αhuman-level␈αstrength␈αachieved.␈α Since␈αthe␈αsingle␈αrobot␈αarms␈αnow␈αsell␈αfor␈αmore␈αthan␈α$20,000,
␈↓ ↓H␈↓it seems unlikely that a $4,000 price could be achieved for the physical part of the robot.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_2.␈α∂Vision.␈α∂ Television␈α∂cameras␈α∂can␈α∂be␈α∂provided,␈α∂but␈α∂a␈α∂program␈α∂that␈α∂could␈α⊂recognize␈α∂the
␈↓ ↓H␈↓parts␈αof␈α
a␈αguest␈α
well␈αenough␈α
to␈αhelp␈αhim␈α
off␈αwith␈α
his␈αcoat␈α
without␈αinjuring␈α
him␈αseems␈αbeyond␈α
the
␈↓ ↓H␈↓present␈α
state␈α
of␈αthe␈α
art.␈α
 Certainly,␈α
nothing␈αthat␈α
difficult␈α
has␈α
been␈αachieved.␈α
 This␈α
is␈αan␈α
advertised
␈↓ ↓H␈↓Quasar␈α
function.␈α
 An␈α
adequate␈α∞television␈α
camera␈α
would␈α
cost␈α
about␈α∞$1,000,␈α
but␈α
it␈α
isn't␈α∞clear␈α
that
␈↓ ↓H␈↓this would be adequate.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_3.␈α∞Speech.␈α∞ Something␈α∞useful␈α∂could␈α∞be␈α∞achieved␈α∞at␈α∂moderate␈α∞cost,␈α∞but␈α∞not␈α∂something␈α∞that
␈↓ ↓H␈↓could␈α∂be␈α⊂useful␈α∂in␈α⊂teaching␈α∂the␈α∂children␈α⊂to␈α∂speak␈α⊂French.␈α∂ The␈α∂vocabulary␈α⊂would␈α∂have␈α⊂to␈α∂be
␈↓ ↓H␈↓limited to that required for carrying out domestic tasks.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_4.␈α⊂Control␈α∂of␈α⊂motion␈α∂and␈α⊂manipulation.␈α⊂ Control␈α∂of␈α⊂motion␈α∂and␈α⊂recognition␈α⊂of␈α∂obstacles
␈↓ ↓H␈↓sufficient␈α⊃to␈α⊃avoid␈α⊃running␈α⊃into␈α⊃children,␈α⊂animals␈α⊃and␈α⊃furniture␈α⊃is␈α⊃somewhat␈α⊃beyond␈α⊂present
␈↓ ↓H␈↓achievement.␈α Even␈αafter␈αsuccessful␈αpreliminary␈αexperiments,␈αit␈αwould␈αprobably␈αtake␈αseveral␈αyears
␈↓ ↓H␈↓to certify a robot as safe enough for use in a home.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_5.␈α∞Common␈α∞sense.␈α∞ A␈α
useful␈α∞domestic␈α∞robot␈α∞must␈α
have␈α∞a␈α∞common␈α∞sense␈α∞understanding␈α
of
␈↓ ↓H␈↓the␈α∂world.␈α∂ For␈α∂example,␈α∂it␈α∂must␈α∂know␈α∂what␈α∂to␈α∞expect␈α∂if␈α∂a␈α∂child␈α∂starts␈α∂to␈α∂pull␈α∂a␈α∂heavy␈α∞object
␈↓ ↓H␈↓towards␈α∞the␈α∞head␈α
of␈α∞a␈α∞table␈α∞or␈α
it␈α∞hears␈α∞thunder␈α
and␈α∞the␈α∞windows␈α∞are␈α
open.␈α∞ This␈α∞area␈α∞is␈α
very
␈↓ ↓H␈↓backward and requires major breakthroughs.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_6.␈α∂Achievement␈α∂of␈α∂goals.␈α∂ In␈α∞order␈α∂to␈α∂obey␈α∂a␈α∂command,␈α∞a␈α∂robot␈α∂must␈α∂divide␈α∂a␈α∂task␈α∞into
␈↓ ↓H␈↓subtasks␈α
and␈α
overcome␈α
the␈α
obstacles␈α
required␈α
to␈α
accomplish␈α
the␈α
subtasks␈α
and␈α
make␈α
sure␈α∞that␈α
in
␈↓ ↓H␈↓accomplishing␈α∂one␈α∂of␈α∞the␈α∂subtasks␈α∂it␈α∞doesn't␈α∂spoil␈α∂the␈α∞preconditions␈α∂for␈α∂accomplishing␈α∞another.
␈↓ ↓H␈↓This␈αhas␈αbeen␈αa␈αmajor␈αarea␈αof␈αresearch␈αin␈αartificial␈αintelligence␈αand␈αmuch␈αhas␈αbeen␈αachieve,␈αbut
␈↓ ↓H␈↓again it isn't close to ready for domestic use.
␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ εH␈↓ 92


␈↓ ↓H␈↓αThe Quasar Promises

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_My␈αattention,␈αthat␈α
of␈αProfessor␈αMarvin␈α
Minsky␈αof␈αM.I.T.,␈α
and␈αthat␈αof␈α
other␈αmembers␈αof␈α
the
␈↓ ↓H␈↓artificial␈α
intelligence␈αcommunity␈α
were␈α
drawn␈αto␈α
Quasar␈α
Industries␈αby␈α
newspaper␈αarticles␈α
appearing
␈↓ ↓H␈↓in␈αJuly␈α
1977.␈α These␈α
articles␈αreported␈α
the␈αclaim␈αto␈α
deliver␈αdomestic␈α
robots␈αfor␈α
$4,000␈αin␈αfour␈α
years,
␈↓ ↓H␈↓and␈αaccepted␈αas␈αgenuine␈αthe␈αconversations␈αof␈αKlatu␈αalias␈αSam␈αStrugglegear.␈α At␈αfirst,␈αwe␈αwere␈αnot
␈↓ ↓H␈↓inclined␈α
to␈α
do␈αanything,␈α
because␈α
these␈αclaims␈α
don't␈α
interfere␈αwith␈α
our␈α
work.␈α
 However,␈αProfessor
␈↓ ↓H␈↓Minsky␈α⊂pointed␈α⊃out␈α⊂that␈α⊂if␈α⊃anyone␈α⊂has␈α⊃a␈α⊂responsibility␈α⊂to␈α⊃expose␈α⊂hoaxes␈α⊂in␈α⊃a␈α⊂given␈α⊃area␈α⊂of
␈↓ ↓H␈↓science, it is the practitioners of that science.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_While␈α∂we␈α⊂were␈α∂trying␈α⊂to␈α∂decide␈α∂what␈α⊂to␈α∂do␈α⊂about␈α∂matters␈α∂distant␈α⊂from␈α∂either␈α⊂M.I.T.␈α∂or
␈↓ ↓H␈↓Boston,␈α∞we␈α
received␈α∞a␈α∞report␈α
from␈α∞Brian␈α
Reid␈α∞and␈α∞other␈α
graduate␈α∞students␈α∞at␈α
Carnegie-Mellon
␈↓ ↓H␈↓University␈α∩of␈α∩a␈α∩Klatu␈α⊃demonstration␈α∩at␈α∩Pittsburgh␈α∩department␈α⊃stores,␈α∩and␈α∩their␈α∩detection␈α⊃of
␈↓ ↓H␈↓remote␈α
control.␈α A␈α
similar␈α
report␈αsoon␈α
came␈α
from␈αGeorge␈α
Dodd␈α
of␈αGeneral␈α
Motors␈α
about␈αa␈α
Detroit
␈↓ ↓H␈↓demonstration.␈α∞ It␈α∞became␈α∞clear␈α∞that␈α∞Quasar␈α
Industries␈α∞claims␈α∞that␈α∞Klatu's␈α∞speech␈α∞recognition␈α
is
␈↓ ↓H␈↓genuine␈α_when␈α_they␈α_can␈α↔get␈α_away␈α_with␈α_it␈α_and␈α↔admits␈α_remote␈α_control␈α_when␈α_pressed␈α↔by
␈↓ ↓H␈↓knowledgeable people.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_The␈α∂Stanford␈α∂University␈α⊂press␈α∂release␈α∂was␈α⊂based␈α∂on␈α∂this␈α⊂information.␈α∂ The␈α∂letter␈α⊂to␈α∂the
␈↓ ↓H␈↓Justice␈α∩Department␈α∩was␈α∩based␈α∩on␈α∩the␈α⊃further␈α∩information␈α∩that␈α∩Quasar␈α∩answers␈α∩inquiries␈α⊃by
␈↓ ↓H␈↓suggesting␈αan␈αinterview␈αto␈αdetermine␈αcompatibility␈αwith␈αthe␈αrobot.␈α This␈αsuggested␈αan␈αopportunity
␈↓ ↓H␈↓for fraud that required investigation by legal authorities.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_Our␈α∂knowledge␈α∂of␈α∂robotics,␈α∂as␈α∂outlined␈α∂above,␈α∂told␈α∂us␈α∂that␈α∂there␈α∂is␈α∂no␈α∂present␈α⊂basis␈α∂for
␈↓ ↓H␈↓marketing␈α∞a␈α∞robot␈α∞domestic␈α∞servant.␈α
 It␈α∞is␈α∞conceivable␈α∞but␈α∞unlikely␈α
that␈α∞a␈α∞small␈α∞group␈α∞could␈α
be
␈↓ ↓H␈↓that␈α⊃far␈α⊃ahead␈α⊃of␈α⊃a␈α⊃dozen␈α⊃research␈α⊃laboratories␈α⊃all␈α⊃over␈α⊃the␈α⊃world.␈α⊃ It␈α⊃is␈α⊃especially␈α⊃unlikely,
␈↓ ↓H␈↓because␈α∞they␈α∞would␈α∞have␈α∞to␈α∂be␈α∞ahead␈α∞not␈α∞merely␈α∞in␈α∞one␈α∂scientific␈α∞area␈α∞but␈α∞in␈α∞four␈α∞or␈α∂five.␈α∞ It
␈↓ ↓H␈↓becomes␈αvery␈αhard␈αto␈αbelieve␈αwhen␈αwe␈αsee␈αthat␈αthey␈αare␈αdemonstrating␈αa␈αrobot␈αthat␈αis␈αfar␈αbehind
␈↓ ↓H␈↓laboratory␈α∩and␈α∩industrial␈α∪robots␈α∩in␈α∩mechanical␈α∪sophistication,␈α∩i.e.␈α∩it␈α∪can␈α∩only␈α∩wave␈α∪its␈α∩arms
␈↓ ↓H␈↓whereas␈αindustrial␈αand␈αlaboratory␈αrobots␈αhave␈αbeen␈αconstructing␈αcomplex␈αobjects␈αout␈αof␈αparts,␈αe.g.
␈↓ ↓H␈↓an␈α⊂IBM␈α⊂robot␈α⊂can␈α⊂partially␈α⊂assemble␈α⊂a␈α⊂typewriter.␈α⊂ Finally,␈α⊂when␈α⊂we␈α⊂discover␈α⊂that␈α⊃Quasar␈α⊂is
␈↓ ↓H␈↓faking␈α∞speech␈α∞recognition␈α
and␈α∞motion␈α∞in␈α
carnival-like␈α∞demonstrations␈α∞in␈α
which␈α∞the␈α∞attention␈α
of
␈↓ ↓H␈↓the␈αaudience␈αis␈αdistracted␈αby␈αhaving␈αthe␈αrobot␈αpretend␈αto␈αtry␈αto␈αmake␈αdates␈αwith␈αgirls,␈αwe␈αare␈αleft
␈↓ ↓H␈↓with one conclusion - it's a fake.

␈↓ ↓H␈↓␈↓ α_The␈αonly␈α
remaining␈αquestion␈αis␈α
whether␈αany␈αlaws␈α
have␈αbeen␈αbroken,␈α
and␈αwe␈αleave␈α
that␈αto
␈↓ ↓H␈↓you.